Shannon's Science Fair Paper

A Science Fair Project

Hydrogen
Fuel of the Future

Shannon L. Smith
2/28/2011 

Introduction and Hypothesis

Hydrogen sounds like a terrific fuel source. Hydrogen may be a clean, green alternative to fossil fuels. Hydrogen can be made from hydrolysis of water, but this hydrolysis process requires energy. “Hydrolysis: is a chemical reaction involving water as one of the reacting substances. Its name comes from two Greek words meaning water and loosening. In industry, hydrolysis is important in making soap, sugar, alcohols, hydroxides, and silicones.” (Adewumi) Can hydrolysis be made more efficient in order to provide a clean alternative fuel source, hydrogen, in order supplement fossil fuels upon which we are so dependant?

Why Hydrogen?

Hydrogen is a fuel for the future because it is clean when burned. Fossil fuels are running out, but there is a lot of hydrogen to be made.

Hydrogen could someday replace both gas and oil as a fuel. It burns easily, giving off huge amounts of heat and one harmless by-product, water. Chilled to liquid form, hydrogen can be transported in pipelines and stored in tanks. Aircraft and automobiles may someday use this nonpolluting, lightweight, and efficient fuel. Hydrogen is removed from water by a process called hydrolysis, which involves running an electric current through the water. But the process requires enormous amounts of electric power, making hydrogen a costly energy source. (Adewumi)

Right now there are some hydrogen powered cars on the road. For example there are some fuel cell cars like “Honda's new hydrogen-powered FCX Clarity, which hit the market this week leasing for $600 a month, as well as the hydrogen-powered Chevrolet Equinox test-vehicle fleet from General Motors—part of a pilot program that aims to determine how hydrogen cars might function in everyday life. Both the Japanese and U.S. automakers are betting that these nonpolluting cars will one day replace the internal combustion engine.” (Biello) Auto makers are pursuing hydrogen fueled vehicles:

”Hydrogen (H2) is being aggressively explored as a fuel for passenger vehicles. It can be used in fuel cells to power electric motors or burned in internal combustion engines (ICEs). It is an environmentally friendly fuel that has the potential to dramatically reduce our dependence on imported oil, but several significant challenges must be overcome before it can be widely used.” (Fuel Economy.Gov. “Hydrogen.”)

Hydrogen is a useful, clean fuel source. However, the electricity needs to come from a clean source like solar power in order to avoid burning fossil fuels to make clean hydrogen. Also, people with solar powered homes may be able to store hydrogen to use as fuel during cloudy weather when they are unable to generate electricity from their solar cells. Mike Strizki has powered his home, cars and lawn mower in this manner.

A home owner could pay a lot of power and heating bills with the cost of solar/hydrogen equipment used in this “hydrogen house.” At this time hydrogen is really expensive to produce, but it could be made here, where we live, instead of us importing fossil fuel from oil producing countries. (Fuel Economy. Gov. “Benefits.”) Mike Strizki says his equipment cost $500,000. (Biello) That’s very expensive, a lot more expensive than fossil fuels. Besides the costly equipment there are some other draw backs to hydrogen fuel at this time. It does not have the same energy output we are used to.

Hydrogen contains much less energy than gasoline or diesel on a per-volume basis, making it difficult for hydrogen vehicles to go as far as gasoline vehicles between fill ups—about 300 miles. Technology is improving, but the onboard hydrogen storage systems do not yet meet size, weight, and cost goals for commercialization. (Fuel Economy.Gov)

My Experiment

I wanted to see whether I could make hydrolysis a more efficient process.

Apparatus

I conducted my experiment using a plastic tank to hold the water with a wooden slat to hold the electrodes. We purchased two test tubes to hold and measure the hydrogen that is being generated. The two test tubes are held upside down over the electrodes. The electrodes are made of graphite that we had gotten out of a large pencil and to which we attached wires leading to a car battery. We used an instant read thermometer to measure the temperature of the water. We also used a stop watch to measure the amount of time it took to generate one ml of hydrogen. We used a car battery instead of a solar cell because it can be used indoors and provides a more consistent source of electricity.

Procedure

In each test, I filled the tank with water at the right temperature. Then I put the electrodes in the bottom of the tank, and filled the test tubes with water. I then put the test tubes upside down in a holder over each electrode. Then I hooked up the wire to the battery and started the stop watch. I watched the test tube until one ml of hydrogen was generated and stopped the watch. The test was repeated for each temperature and for each amount of salt.

Test Runs

I ran two types of tests. During the first test I added heat in varying increments to tap water. I measured how long it took to generate one ml of hydrogen at that specific temperature.

My Results for Test #1






In my second test I measured how fast the hydrogen is produced with various measurements of salt dissolved in tap water.

My Results of Test #2



Analysis

Warmer water speeds up the hydrolysis process. I found that if I increased the temperature of the tap water to 140F in the hydrolysis process, I collected three times the amount of hydrogen in the same time period as I collected when the water was 40F. The sun could be used to heat the water in hydrolysis. In the solar-powered hydrolysis system, the sun produces the electricity and also heats up the water.

Also, adding salt to the water speeds up the hydrolysis process even farther. Salt increases the conductivity of the water, so electricity flows more easily through the water. ”When salt is added (NaCl) to the system, the conductivity of the system increases considerably.” (Silva, Water Conductivity). Because salt increases the conductivity of water to electricity, more electricity is used in the process. Thus, hydrogen is generated faster, but not necessarily more efficiently. There are limits to the effects of salt. Once the water reaches a saturation point with salt, the rate of collection of hydrogen does not increase.

Regarding the cleanliness of the hydrolysis process, when I used warmer water in the hydrolysis process I collected hydrogen more quickly; however, because more electricity is used in the presence of salt and more energy is needed to preheat the water the addition of these factors, salt and heat, may not create a more efficient hydrolysis process. The use of solar power may be a more “green” and economical option, however. (Cullen)





Further Research

There are more experiments that I could do to see what may make hydrolysis faster. I could try other chemicals, such as lime, potassium salt, vinegar, or baking soda to see if they would speed up the hydrolysis process. I could also try different materials for the electrodes. In my experiments, the electrodes were made of graphite from pencil leads. Other things I could try may be different metals, such as aluminum, iron, copper, and platinum.



Conclusion

I have found that adding salt to water increases the speed at which hydrolysis occurs. I have also found that raising the temperature of the water increases the speed at which hydrolysis occurs. In both cases hydrogen is produced from hydrolysis more quickly. Although hydrogen is produced more quickly, this does not mean that increasing the salt content or the water temperature is a means to more efficiently extracting hydrogen. The process may use more electrical power when it is accelerated; however, measuring the output of energy required to cause hydrolysis was beyond the scope of my project.





 

Bibliography



Adewumi, Michael A. "Energy supply." World Book Student. World Book, 2011. Web. 22 Feb. 2011.

Biello, David. “House: No More Power Bills—Ever.” Scientific American. June 19, 2008.

Cullen, T. Pure Energy Solutions.Com. News. “Sunlight Used to Produce Hydrogen from Water: Solar Hydrogen Energy Corporation Has Demonstrated That Solar Energy can be Concentrated to 1500F and used to Produce Hydrogen.” http://www.pureenergysystems.com/news/2004/07/09/6900033_Solar_Hydrogen/. July 9, 2004. Accessed February 26, 2011.

http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=hydrogen-house. Web. 28 Feb. 2011.

Hydrogen. http://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hydrogen.shtm. Site updated February 25, 2011. Accessed February 26, 2011.

Silva, Vasco. Water Conductivity: Science at Home. Http://scienceathome.cienciaviva.pt/conduti_agua_eng.html. 2003. Accessed February 26, 2011.

You Know You're a Utahn When...

The Hills are Alive

With the sounds of the Smiths hollering down the slopes
The two behind me are NOT "high-fiving."

Major hat hair.

I Spy a Retainer Case

Can you find the retainer case in my backyard?  Hint:  It's white and shaped like a jack-o-lantern smile.

Scroll down to see the answer.



































Close.  Here's where it is.


Mark thought the retainer case would protect his retainer.  $118 NOT!  This current retainer was only two weeks old.  At least it wasn't a "holly" retainer which are $300.

Dixie's Bosch Foolproof Bread

Dixie demonstrated how to make 100% whole wheat bread at our mid-week meeting. She frequents the Bosch store bread-making classes and shared her knowledge with us. Here is a republications of the Bosch store recipe.


Recipe Ingredient 
                        Whole Wheat                White                 Half & Half           Cinnamon Rolls


Water 90F                 6 C                  6-7 C                 6 C                   3 C

Salt                           2 T                    2 T                   2 T                    1 T

Oil                            ½ C                   ½ C                  ½ C                  1/4 C

Liquid Lecithin         2 T                    2 T                   2 T                   1 T

Honey                       2/3 C                 n/a                    ½ C                 ½ C

Brown Sugar             n/a                    n/a                    n/a                    n/a

Sugar                         n/a                    1 C.                  n/a                    n/a

Dough Enhancer        2 ½ T.               2 T.                 2 T.                  1 T.

Vital Wheat Gluten    2 T.                   2 T.                 2T.                   2 T.

Hard Wheat Flour      8 ½-15C           81/2 -16 C      7 white/7wheat    4-7.5C

Powdered Milk          n/a                    1 C                  n/a                   ½ C optional

Potato Flakes              n/a                   1 C                  n/a                   ½ C optional

Instant Yeast (SAF)    2 ½ T.              2 ½ T.             2 T.                 1 ½ T.

Mixing Instructions:

For Bosch Universal Wheat combine 6 C. warm water and 8-9 cups fresh wheat flour. Using the dough hook mix to paste consistency. Mix in 2 ½ T. yeast then add salt, honey, oil, lecithin and gluten. Turn machine to speed one and add additional flour until dough pulls away from sides of bowl. As motor bears down increase to speed 2 carefully in order to not add too much flour. Let knead 7-8 minutes and then add dough enhancer. Knead two more minutes for a total of 9-10 minutes. Use shortening on your hands to form loaves. Take dough immediately form bowl. Pinch off enough dough to fill non-stick loaf pans ½ -2/3 full. Press dough evenly into pan. Cover with plastic to keep moist and let rise until doubled (approx. 1 inch above top of pan.) Place in preheated oven at 350 F. Bake 30-35 minutes. Internal temperature will be 180-185F. Yield: 5-6 1 ½ lb. loaves.


For Bosch Universal White follow the same instructions as above except mix only 5-7 minutes once dough has pulled away from sides of bowl. Add dough enhancer after 5-6 minutes of kneading. Follow same baking instructions. Yield: 5-6 1 ½ lb. loaves.


For Bosch Universal Wheat/White combine 6 C. warm water, 7 C. wheat flour, 2 C. white flour. Using dough hook mix to paste consistency. Mix in 2 ½ T. yeast, salt, oil, honey and lecithin. Turn mixer to speed 1 and add additional flour until dough pulls away from sides of bowl as motor bears down turn mixer to speed 2. Let knead for 4-5 minutes. Add dough enhancer and let knead 2 more minutes. If too sticky, add additional flour to eliminate stickiness. Take immediately out of bowl. Fill loaf pans ½ full and press dough down into pan. Follow wheat bread baking instructions. Yield is approx. 5-6 1 ½ lb. loaves.


For Bosch Universal Cinnamon Rolls use the same mixing instructions as Wheat Bread. Remove the dough once it is kneaded and roll it out on a lightly oiled surface into a large rectangle about 16” x 36” and ¼” thick. Melt 6 T. butter and spread over dough. Spread 1 ½ C. brown sugar and 1 T. cinnamon evenly over dough. Roll up dough jelly roll style seam side down on table. Cut into 1 inch slices with floss or string. Slide string under the roll, cross it over the top, and pull apart. Place rolls on oiled baking sheet. Let rise until double in size. Bake at 350 F for 13-18 minutes. Yield 32 rolls.
(Glaze: Mix 3-4 T. milk and 2 C. powdered sugar together till you have a syrup consistency. Flavor with 1 t. of vanilla and ¼ t. of almond flavoring. I add a sprinkle of salt, too. –Karen)

Marta D's White Bread

This is so magnificent I had to post a photo.  Marta hauled her bread machine to my house and demonstrated how she makes white bread and 68% whole wheat bread.  The whole wheat version didn't rise to this extent and so it didn't warrant a photo.

Here's the recipe which Marta makes in a bread machine.  She got the machine from KSL.com for $10--She also has a gorgeous red Kitchaid mixer.  Marta does not cook the dough in the machine.  She only uses the machine to knead the dough.  It has a "dough" setting which kneads the dough for about 20 minutes and then proofs the dough before you shape it and put in 81/4 by 4 1/2 inch bread pans. OK--the above photo pictures bread the was baked in 5 X 9 inch bread pans.  So, if you want ex-large loaves use two 5 x 9'ers, otherwise use three 4 x 8'ers.  It all depends on who you want to impress.

White Bread
Combine the following ingredients in the bucket of a bread machine:
4 T. melted butter
3 T. honey (heaping)
1 tsp. salt
2 eggs
1/2 C. greek yogurt or homemade yogurt 2% milkfat
1 1/2 C. hot water from sink
1 T. heaping, Instant yeast (SAF)
8 C. white bread flour
Process:
Use a wooden spoon to help the dough come together as the machine kneads. During the first 8 minutes of kneading assess the moisture level of the dough.  Marta makes a very stiff dough.  It is not sticky or even "tacky."  Sprinkle extra flour on the dough ball to create a stiff dough. (I was surprised how stiff this dough is, but how well it rose.)  The machine's dough cycle finishes after a total of 1 1/2 hours kneading and proofing.  The dough is lifting the machine's lid by this time.

Marta removes the dough from the bucket and rolls three rectangles with a rolling pin about the width of her bread pan and 3/4 inch thick.  She rolls up the rectangle and places the loaf seam side down in the pan.  Spray dough with oil and cover loosely with plastic wrap.  The dough will need room to expand.  It rises quickly, so check the loaf after 45 -60 minutes.  When a knuckle-indent does not bounce back quickly it is ready to bake at 350 for about 30 minutes.  I used a convection oven for this dough.  The dough was 200-205 F on the interior when I removed it from the oven.

68% Whole Wheat Bread
Marta uses the above recipe but substitutes 5 C. of whole wheat flour for for 5 C. of white flour. She also adds 1 T. of canola oil.

Multigrain Bread from Cook's Illustrated

This bread as great! It's pretty light considering the 7 grain cereal, whole wheat flour and sunflower seeds.


Multigrain Bread
Published March 1, 2006.
Makes two 9 by 5-inch loaves
Don't confuse 7-grain hot cereal mix with boxed, cold breakfast cereals that may also be labeled "7-grain." Our favorite brands of 7-grain mix are Bob's Red Mill and Arrowhead Mills. Leftover bread can be wrapped in a double layer of plastic wrap and stored at room temperature for 3 days; wrap with an additional layer of aluminum foil and the bread can be frozen for up to one month.

Ingredients
6 1/4 ounces 7-grain hot cereal mix , 1 1/4 cups, (see note above)
20 ounces boiling water (2 1/2 cups)
15 ounces unbleached all-purpose flour (3 cups), plus extra for dusting work surface
7 1/2 ounces whole wheat flour (1 1/2 cups)
4 tablespoons honey
4 tablespoons unsalted butter , melted and cooled slightly
2 1/2 teaspoons instant yeast
1 tablespoon table salt
3/4 cup pumpkin seeds or sunflower seeds, (unsalted)
1/2 cup old-fashioned rolled oats or quick oats

Instructions
1. Place cereal mix in bowl of standing mixer and pour boiling water over it; let stand, stirring occasionally, until mixture cools to 100 degrees and resembles thick porridge, about 1 hour. Whisk flours in medium bowl.

2. Once grain mixture has cooled, add honey, melted butter, and yeast and stir to combine. Attach bowl to standing mixer fitted with dough hook. With mixer running on low speed, add flours, 1/2 cup at a time, and knead until dough forms ball, 1 1/2 to 2 minutes; cover bowl with plastic and let dough rest 20 minutes. Add salt and knead on medium-low speed until dough clears sides of bowl, 3 to 4 minutes (if it does not clear sides, add 2 to 3 tablespoons additional
all-purpose flour and continue mixing); continue to knead dough for 5 more minutes. Add seeds and knead for another 15 seconds. Transfer dough to floured work surface and knead by hand until seeds are dispersed evenly and dough forms smooth, taut ball. Place dough into greased container with 4-quart capacity; cover with plastic wrap and allow to rise until doubled, 45 to 60 minutes.

3. Adjust oven rack to middle position; heat oven to 375 degrees. Spray two 9 by 5-inch loaf pans with nonstick cooking spray. Transfer dough to lightly floured work surface and pat into 12 by 9-inch rectangle; cut dough in half crosswise with knife or bench scraper. Follow illustrations 1 through 3 below to shape loaves and coat with oats; cover lightly with plastic wrap and let rise until almost doubled in size, 30 to 40 minutes. (Dough should barely spring back when poked with knuckle.) Bake until internal temperature registers 200 degrees on instant-read thermometer, 35 to 40 minutes. Remove loaves from pans and cool on wire rack before slicing, about 3 hours.

Step-by-Step
Getting the Loaf into Shape

1. With short side facing you, starting at farthest end, roll dough piece into log. Keep roll taut by tucking it under itself as you go. 2. To seal loaf, pinch seam gently with thumb and forefinger. Spray loaves lightly with water or nonstick cooking spray.

3. Roll each dough log in oats to coat evenly. Place loaf seam-side down in greased loaf pan, pressing gently into corners.

What is Lecithin?

Dixie W's Bosch bread recipe called for lecithin.  Some of the ladies asked what it was. Here's a bit of what I found:

LECITHIN - Naturally occurring in soybeans, available in liquid or granule form; used to lightly coat baking pans to prevent sticking (use 1/3 part liquid lecithin with 2/3 part oil); it is a fat emulsifier and can be added to smoothies, in Better Butter recipes, in bread dough and other baked goods. http://realfoodliving.com/faqs/real-foods-glossary

Dough enhancer is listed separately from lecithin in the Bosch "Foolproof Bread" recipe, but lecithin is one of numerous dough enhancers.  Lecithin "[h]elps keep bread fresher longer & works with the gluten to make a lighter bread. It also helps make the bread moister and acts as a mild preservative. Made from soy or egg yolks. Comes in liquid or granular form. Use: 1 Tablespoon per cup of flour." http://www.breadmachinedigest.com/tips/dough-enhancers-and-how-to-use-them.php   Eggs, sugar, honey, oil, everything other than flour, water, yeast and salt are dough enhancers.